Tunisie: une crise de morales?

La morale n'est pas un  mot banale ou un symbole désignant les quelques mouvements mécaniques respectant quelques normes comportementales superficielles. En effet l’éthique, est une science multi-branche . Cela n’est gère étonnant si l’on considère que cette science concerne la recherche et l’établissement des principes logiques sur lesquels s’établissent nos jugements moraux. L’attribution d’un qualificatif qualitatif a une action, du genre «bon» ou «mauvais» ou transférer ce jugement  sur l’auteur de l’action ou l’idée n’est pas une action arbitraire ou hâtive. Elle est le résultat de théories morales « dominantes » et  de l'accumulation historique et théologique propre à l’environnement ou le processus moral se déroule. Une partie majeure des systèmes moraux n’est pas rédigée et on ne peut les consulter lors des transactions rapides de la vie quotidienne. Cependant, les règles morales implicites sont le garant réel de la confiance en autrui et préviennent le dérapage dans la méfiance et craintes exagérées et dans  le chaos et l’impossibilité de coexister.

Donc, il est impossible à toute force ou pouvoir politique d’améliorer la qualité de vie d’un groupe ou d’une société sans qu’elle ait déjà un ‘tissu moral fort en soutien. Il est impossible d’établir un mécanisme ou chaque citoyen aurait un gardien vérifiant ces actions. Le discours indécent en public, l’ harcèlement dans les rues et la tricherie dans les marchés sont tous des comportements que n'importe quel gouvernement, démocratique ou pas, ne peut pas éradiquer.

 Pour vérifier que l’usure frappe de plein fouets le tissu moral des Tunisiens, on a juste à jeter un coup d’oeil sur n’importe quelle rue bondée. Les exemples de cette décadence sont abondants : D’abord le sentiment d'insécurité et de suspicion continue. Cette insécurité et manque de confiance en l’autre est justifiée par une prolifération maladive  du mensonge et de l’incapacité à découdre la vérité parmi les flux d’information corrompu.

Ce fléau frappe même le secteur médiatique, supposé être l'interface du peuple et sa façade sur l’étranger, mais qui ne cesse d’être impliqué dans des scandales de falsification et de corruption. Comme si cela n’était pas assez, certaines chaînes télévisées sont quasiment des portes à la normalisation avec les scènes de corruption que la famille Tunisienne refuse avec dédain. Les milieux des internautes, notamment le facebook, jouent leur part en facilitant la prolifération des rumeurs. Également en oie la hausse de l’héros tunisien comme étant celui capable de tromper les autres et satisfaire ces intérêts par des moyens corrompus. Cette image tordue su « Mhaf» est un symbole de la perte des repères  moraux a un tel point qu’un comportement que devrait être réprimandé devient héroïque.

 Cette décadence pénètre dans  toute la société et  même sa supposé élites. En effet on trouve qu’une partie de l’élite Tunisienne est pionnière et participe activement à la désintégration du tissu moral. Et cette désintégration n’est pas seulement liée à  la dictature mais constitue plutôt un phénomène général. L’Assemblée constituante, première institution démocratique en Tunisie, en est la preuve. on a tous lu et vu des députés qui placent des faux votes pour leurs collegues absents! Cet incident est très préoccupant car il s’agit-là de  la volonté de tout un peuple qui se fait truqué. Le  pire, c'est que l'incident est passé inaperçu et aucune mesure punitive à l’échelle de ce crime n’a été prise! En a plutôt ignoré l’incident laissant la tâche au facteur du temps pour diluer et faire oublier l’affaire.

Après 50 ans d'occidentalisation forcée, le fil et le constituant principal du tissu moral Tunisien, l’islam, se trouve affaibli et encerclé. la corruption morale rampante est le résultat directe de l’amputation atroce et artificielle de la Tunisie de son contexte culturel et historique naturel. La morale, en Tunisie, est proche même entremêlée avec l'islam. Donc naturellement, l’attaque parasite acharnée sur la racine Islamique des morales a aussi affaibli le tissu moral Tunisien. La plantation forcé de l'éthique et les modes de vie français et surtout l'échec de cette tentative en Tunisie ont conduit à la perte des repère moraux. Cela a produit un modèle social déformé qui n’est pas complétement occidental et français mais qui a aussi perdu le chemin de son développement culturel propre à lui.

Le système éducatif Tunisien se trouve encore sur la marge de l’effort « éducationnelle » ! Bien que cela présente une contradiction absurde mais on trouve même que le milieu scolaire a un rôle bien dérisoire en propageant les valeurs de corruption dès le jeune âge. Le propos d’établissement « éducatif » ne semble pas pouvoir quitter les plaques des écoles pour influencer ce qui se déroule dedans. A la place, en trouve que même les responsables de l’éducation des Tunisien ne sont pas adéquatement qualifiés. Cela se manifeste dans le manque du respect dans les écoles tunisiennes entre les deux partenaires principaux, les élèves et les enseignants, qui arrivent trop souvent à l’échange de violence.

 La marche vers un avenir meilleur en Tunisie ne peut réussir dans le cadre de l’absence d’un tissu moral soutenant. Il nous faut donc, penser à la manière avec laquelle on pourrait  réintroduire et renforcé le tissu moral Tunisien. Il me parait qu’un tel effort devrait se concentrer sur trois axes principaux : les medias, la religion et l’éducation.

En ce qui concerne les medias, les chaines publiques surtout, doivent être réformées pour qu’elles puissent procurer un produit médiatique qui répond aux besoins culturels et intellectuels des Tunisien et non leur instincts animal. Religieusement, il faudrait renforcer la conscience populaire du concept islamique de Helel et Haram. Cela promet d’avoir des résultats profonds sur la population croyante. Tout ça doit s’accompagner de l’établissement d’un système éducatif effectif dans lequel les sciences humaines, notamment la philosophie, reprennent leur rôle : procurer aux  élève les atouts logiques nécessaires pour  faire la « différence » entre le bien et le « mal ».

Thoughts on Corporal punishment in the school context

  It is noteworthy before starting the inquiry into the issue of corporal punishment to dismiss any assumption that it is a limited practice worldwide. Just a simple discussion with the College students will show behind any doubt that it is still practiced even though Africa seems to suffer most from it.

In the following I’ll attempt timidly to explore this practice both in reasons and effects not forgetting proposing some ‘’solutions’’.

       

    Corporal punishment is a form of punishment that takes various physical aspects. Whipping, forced walking on knees, smacking the face and various other forms. It is still a systematic policy in a number of countries meaning that it is an established practice rather than an individual abuse of power. Personally hand beating with the use a stick was the punishment that I most encountered in my primary school. The ‘’accusations’’ vary everywhere from forgetting homework to just talking with a friend. I will always remember, though, that in every class there were some kids who just didn’t undergo this ‘’ritual’ ’,they were from some special families or the teachers just ‘’knew’’ their parents.

The reasons behind this phenomenon require a serious professional investigation. But in the context of schools in North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa and maybe Asia, I think I have a solid-enough hypothesis. Considering the wider social context of the societies that apply such measures on their students imposes itself. Bankruptcy, booming corruption and absence of basic freedoms are the norm!  Adults are constantly subjected to abnormal pressure (jobless or instable job…). The relationship between various components of society is thus characterized with oppression (or being oppressed). Students, especially kids, (along with women and handicapped people…) happen to be at the lowest ranks of this oppressive social latter. As it is easiest to apply physical forms of abuse on kids: they find themselves subject to such daily abuse. Society doesn’t even condemn it but emphasizes that it is natural (which further solidify the argument). Here I quote Dr. Lorraine Monroe (a school principal that turned a NYC troubled HS into a successful establishment and was featured in the ‘’IB world’’ magazine.). ‘’It breaks my heart when people look at kids and say: that’s just how they are at that age’’.

Other reasons are the lack of suitable legislation (even though when the legislation changes the behavior doesn’t automatically change.). This factor seems to be improving as most states are adopting laws that prohibit physical punishment as a pedagogical tool. Another factor that I find interesting but that is still not established is a historic one. Most countries in North Africa (and of course other parts of the continent) were subjected to the colonial rule of imperial France. As sates started gaining their independence they employed large numbers of French teachers as the starting generation of instructors in their young educational systems. As my father (and his generation…) told me these teachers were particularly cruel and unreasonably harsh (my mother told me that one of them would make the students lick up the ink if they dropped it, which happened a lot in a primary school!). A historical mistake of the independence state was to turn for the old defeated colonial power, France, for the fate of their first generation. Racism, hatred and feelings of superiority were at their height after the Algerian-French war which in turn fueled the corporal and harsh punishment in the post-colonial school. Some of the students who went through this era grew up to become the next generation of teachers, believing that beating was an acceptable, even beneficial, method of punishing the students.

The effects of physical punishment are beyond any doubt destructive and alarming. On a personal level, all feelings of security disappear and fear replaces it. As this state persists the pupil finds himself a slave to his fears. Expression abilities are limited and a seed of oppressive behavior that will carry on to the next generation is also planted. On the wider scale, creativity is slaughtered at a very early stage. Conformism is reinforced and no room is left for exceptional and innovative thinking or acting. Some even suffer disorders (because of abuse and violence). They are all reluctant of any form of authority but the rooted fear in them makes them suffer a form of schizophrenic behavior. Is it only a coincidence that violence on the national scale (civil wars…) is usually accompanied by inadequate educational methods? The answer is that the vicious circle of violence at a young age and the development of oppressive behavior later is the root cause of some of the problems encountered in troubled societies.   

After listing some of the reasons and effects of physical reprimanding on the pupils and their societies as a whole it is useful to propose an alternative.

I strongly believe that the whole idea of punishment in school is a very harmful concept. Reward is the right approach that is most effective in helping the student achieve academic and personal excellence. By this I mean encouraging productive behavior generously (marking systems, verbal approval and even candy). One might say: but how do we deal with destructive and harmful behavior. I respond that that punishment is certainly not the answer! School should provide support (via counseling and other forms of help) rather than to aggravate normal problematic situation into devastating social patterns.

     As a conclusion of the inquiry I believe it is fair to say that corporal punishment is the most harmful form of punishment and thus should not be adopted as an educational policy. Productive rewarding systems might be the most suitable future alternative methods.

 Sources:

January 2011 IB world magazine. Page 11

‘’Massive production… Of slaves: the Tunisian Educational System’’. Previous article that I posted on a social network by the date of January 5, 2011. 

What am I? the question remains.

The title of this book for little children is the classical but extremely decisive and fundamental question of “what…am I?” The search for a stable consistent definition of the core substance or essence of the “I” in what I “was, am and will be, has been a persistent search. No matter how many theories and “definitions” are elaborated the question seems to rather intensify in all fields of human related studies. Even though the question itself is hard to answer, one could see why it would be important to establish the nature of the “I” and how it would lead ultimately to a general definition or at least view of the collective “WE” as an addition of “self-s” or an enlargement of the individual self as Plato would suggest. By suggesting a conflict between body, soul, the self and the mind the text proposes key philosophical issues dealing with the primary question of the “who am I?”

In the following inquiry, I will develop an argument resting on the contrast between rationalist and empiricist views on the matter at hand. I will therefore start with Cartesianism then Berkleism to end with John Locke.

Cartesianism, being a moderate rational view, proposes rather sensible epistemological methods about the substances that can be known indubitably. In fact it is based on the conviction that the “wondering subject” or person undergoing the action of wondering cannot wander about whether he was doing the wondering. Even if he was to wander so, he would inevitably be the wonderer in all cases. It is not relevant here neither the complexity nor the length any mental process that “myself” undertakes, I can indubitably and abjectly cogitate that “I” and not any extraneous elements is the doer of that cognitive activity.

Quite logically it arrives at the inevitable conclusion of the definition of the “I” as the thinking substance that is undergoing all processes of perception and operates other faculties of imagining and such. It is indeed hard to argue that this conclusion is fallacious: For the basis of the methodology is a combination of strict “rules” and methodological skepticism. The application of gradual skeptical hypothesis seems to be comprehensive even in the face of the strongest skepticism like the “evil genius” who would be constantly deceiving us. The presence of god is then introduced as the guaranty that senses are not being corrupted and manipulated which in turn allows cartesianism to reconstruct the ontological realities that the thinking substance or the I is evolving in.

Nevertheless a fundamental incoherence or inconvenience arises from this view of the world and this interpretation of the self. A “handicapped” Dualism that cannot find the proper answer to questions relating to the relationship between material objects and the Res Cogitans (the thinking substance stated above) such that asked by the text “am I identical with my mind? Body?”. Moreover one can debate whether the results of the hyperbolic doubt are not in themselves assumptions that could be doubted as well. Another is the evaluation of the extent to which Descartes has obeyed his own method’s rules? For example the idea of the Res infinita, even though providing a basis for the two other Cartesian basic substances, can be, in my opinion, “filtered” through another skeptical hypothesis, that of doubting the basic assumption that god is perfect. A Cartesian might as well respond to this question by asserting that even in this case, one cannot deny that the self is continuously the substance existing and performing this skeptical supposition. Then I think that certain extremes of cartesianism are erroneous in the sense they lapse in a solipsism that prevents progress and communal and social thought but rather is confined in the self alone.

Berkeley, on the other hand, attempts to eradicate this problematic incoherence radically. He proposes that material substances are quasi non-existent as it is impossible to establish their existence beyond doubt. He claims that while an object is being perceived in the present than it could be argued to be in existence or existing whereas when it stops to be currently perceived it would be an object that existed rather than exists. For example, regarding my computer I can currently sense, feel and maybe smell (if it overheats as it does sometimes) it and thus I can perceive its existence. If I was to leave my study then I can only say that I know indubitably that my computer existed. What is left in this analogy according to Berkeley is that there are only Ideas. He continues on this path to explain and outline that Ideas can only be either true Ideas, making them implanted by God, or they can be false Ideas and thus classified as humanly created and imaginary.  

Nevertheless the manner in which bishop Berkeley has dealt with Descartes’ dualism and the problems and inconsistencies it produces, seems more like a plain simplification and re-interpretation. The advances in physics and related areas for example, show us that objects that are located “far” away by our human metric standards, can be demonstrated or discovered mathematically before an actual sense-like perception of their existence is established. The end result of this thought process is a monism rather than the Cartesian dualism. It seems that following on this path a Berkeley like interpretation of the existing substances of the world would produce a universe of extreme uncertainty in the sense that we would be in a very limited “setting” if we are only accepting the existence of nearby objects.   An obvious answer and reply to this view is that Berkley by eradicating the existence of material objects on the personal basis, is rather avoiding the issues and questions arising from his rational radical views. All what is being advanced forth is then avoidance and not answers to the question of Cartesian style dualism. The use of a divinity in this case reposes on more assumptions than in the Cartesian method: For here we have a God that guarantees the basic ontological ground for the world whereas with Descartes the god being mentioned only guarantees that we are not deceived in our sense perceptions. 

I personally believe that John Locke is the most tangible and thorough about the issues of selfhood than both Berkeley and Descartes.

John Locke provides a convenient and efficient philosophical break with the handicapping dualism dilemma that Descartes’ methods on the matter of selfhood presents: Locke proposes that consciousness cannot and must not be uncompelled from whichever substance it is attached to. In the light of this proposition, personhood or the “I” cannot be disengaged from any cognitive activity or ideas.

In addition Locke asserts that “the perception of the relationship between various Ideas” is the definition of knowledge rather then that of the self. By advancing this concept as such, Locke reduces Berkeley’s interpretation of the reality as a whole, his concepts of true Godly ideas and of humanly invented imagination. He reduces it from its status to a probable component of a knowledge theory. This in turn frees the way for the definition of selfhood and conscious and the “knower” himself. John Locke proposes then that the concept of personal identity can be identified through the necessary conditions or the mind faculty or memory.

Memory and the remembering of moments when “myself” or “I” was aware of my personhood is used to formulate or state a view or idea about that person, my “person”.  Nevertheless Locke specified a specific nature and cast for the memory that is suitable for this definition. A class of memory that he especially dismisses are short term memories that express trivialities and habitual automatic-like action. The fact that it is” a few hours until morning as am writing this essay and that I will go to bed right upon completion and hope I would not have a terrible headache tomorrow and try to drink water to fight the ache” would all fall in this category. Statements such as “When I spent a year alone in 1996 in the wilderness I developed an acute sense of my being while having to shield myself from predators all the time” even though is exaggerated but would be considered a long term important memory. A strong argument supporting this view is that ultimately what one remembers himself as, genuinely, to be must be what he is. One is inevitably what he thinks he is, I am what I think and remember myself to be. Applying a skeptical counter claim such as the possibility of the memory being erroneous does not seem to weaken this notion. For the world is seen throughout each individual’s eyes, perceptions and Ideas which makes every single person’s world an environment that revolves around them (no matter how they remember themselves to be).

An apparent weakness, in my opinion, is that Locke’s empirical view could be the other side or extreme of Berkley regarding Descartes’ view. It could be said to be in turn a monism of the ontological conclusion of typical cartesianism. This means that a relationship can be drawn between the three methods as follows: Cartesianism proposed a material realm and an “Ideas” realm, Berkeley “negated” the material part while Locke did the same with the “Ideas” part of the method.

As a way of conclusion I think that it is most useful to note that John Locke’s views seem to be more attractive because of the realism and tangibility of his Ideas. Nevertheless, Descartes’ Res Cogitans retains a lot of appeal at least from the view point of the rigorous methodology and the operation of the methodological skepticism. It is then most appropriate to end by stating that there are no definite answers but that the questions will always remain.

My Ib philosophy course internal paper

تونس: أخلاقنا إلى أين؟

إنّ الأخلاق ليست لفظة جوفاء أو رمزا لبضع حركات ميكانيكيّة من إحترام رزمة من الضّوابط السّلوكيّة السّطحيّة. بل الأخلاق علم واسع متعدّد الفروع و كتب فيه و سال عليه كثير من الحبر. و لا غرو في أهميّته و هو المنوط به إيجات الآليّات المنطقيّة المحدّدة للخطأ من الصّواب و فرز السيّء من الجيّد. فإدراجنا لتّوصيف اللّغويّ "حسن" أو "سيّء" على فعل أو سحبها على فاعل أو فكرة ليس وليد لحظة متسرّعة و إنّما هو من حيث نشعر و لا نشعر مستوجب لنظريّات تحكمه و خاضع لتراكمات تاريخيّة و ثيولوجيّة طويلة.

و رغم أنّ أغلب "الأخلاق" غير مدوّنة أو مكتوبة و لا يرجع إلى مراجعها عند إتّخاذ جلّ القرارات إلّا أنّه الضّابط الحقيقيّ و الفعليّ للتّعاملات اليوميّة في شكل قواعد ضمنيّة متعارف عليها. فالنّسيج الأخلاقيّ هو الحاجز و الضّمان من الإنزلاق في الرّيبة المستفحلة و فقدان الثّقة بالمحيطين و بالتّالي الفوضى.

لا يمكن لقانون أو سلطة إذا أن تصلح من شأن طبيعة و جودة حياة مجموعة بشريّة بدون توفّر النّسيج الأخلاقيّ الحيويّ كداعم. فلا يمكن إيجاد آليّة يكون بموجبها لكلّ بائع و موضّف و مسؤول حارس يتثبّت من أفعاله. فالكلام البذيء في الشّاع و معاكسة البنات و التحرّش و الغشّ في الأسواق كلّها أمور لا يد لأيّ حكومة عليها في كلّ الأوقات سواء كانت ديمقراطيّة أو ديكتاتوريّة.

و لعلّنا نتّفق الآن على أنّ البلية و الإهتراء أصابا البنيان القيميّ و الميزان الأخلاقيّ لشعبنا التّونسيّ وأنّ التثبّت من ذلك لا يستلزم سوى إطلالة صغيرة على أيّ شارع مكتضّ.

من الأمثلة الكثيرة على هذا التفسّخ غياب الأمن و الإحساس به و الرّيبة المستمّرة و وجوب الحيطة المتواصلة. كما أنّ عدم القدرة على الثّقة بالآخر تجد رافدها في إستفحال الكذب و عدم القدرة على تبيّن الحقيقة من البهتان. ويصل الكذب كظاهرة إلى قطاع الإعلام، واجهة الشّعب و نافذته، الذّي لا يفتأ يطالعنا بأخبار زائفة و فظائح تزوير. كما صارت بعض الفضائيّات نوافذ مفتوحة على الرّذيلة و السّوء و بابا للتّطبيع مع مشاهد كان التّونسيّ يستهجنها بالماضي القريب. و أمّا عن الفضائ الإلكتروني و فوضاه العارمة وإشاعاته المغرضة فحدّث و لا حرج.

كما تصعد كنتيجة للتفسّخ الأخلاقي صورة البطل التّونسيّ كشخص قادر على غشّ غيره و تحصيل مكاسبه بكلّ الوسائل سواء السويّة أو الملتوية  و يطلق عليه لفظ "المهفّ" و يحتفي به المجتمع كشخص قادر و ذكيّ في قلب للصّورة المنطقيّة من وجوب إدانة السّلوكيّات الملتوية.

تغلغل أسلوب الغشّ في كلّ طبقات المجتمع و لم تسلم من النّخب بل كانت سبّاقة في ريادة مسار المغالطة و التفسّخ. و الدّليل على أنّ المرض يتجاوز أساليب الدّكتاتوريّة إلى كونه ظاهرة عامّة و شاملة، يكمن في المجلس التّأسيسي المناط به التّأسيس لنقيض الدّكتاتويّة و الإستبداد. فطالعتنا الصّفحات الإلكترونيّة بنوّاب بالمجلس و هم يقومون بالتّصويت خلسة مزوّرين للأصوات في ضلّ غياب زملائهم. و هذه الحادثة شديدة الرّمزيّة حيث تتعلّق بالحقيقة بمحاولة لتزوير إرادة شعب بأكمله واستسهال غشّه بكبسة زرّ من طرف نائب غشّاش. أمّا الأنكى من ذلك فهو مرور الحادثة مرور الكرام و عدم إتّخاذ أيّ إجراء عقابيّ يليق و حجم الجرم المقترف و تجاهل المسألة و ترك المهمّة لعامل الوقت لتمييعها و وضعها طيّ النّسيان.

أدّت 50 سنة من التّغريب الحضاريّ القسريّ و من التّيه و تغييب الثّوابت الإجتماعيّة إلى نسف و تقطيع أساس و خيط النّسيج الأخلاقي بتونس و هو الإسلام بلا منازع. فسبب تفشّي الفساد الخلاقي و التّطبيع معه هو تلك القطيعة المصطنعة و البتر القسريّ لمسار وجوبيّ من التطوّر الطبيعيّ للأخلاق بتونس. فالحقيقة أنّ الأخلاق في وطننا متماهية حدّ التمازج مع الإسلام. فكان تجفيف و قطع الجذر الإسلاميّ بمثابة حكم بالإعدام على فرعه و غصنه الطبيعيّ أي الأخلاق. و تمّت محاولة لزرع أخلاقيّات و أنماط عيش فرنسيّة بالأساس و أدّى فشل هذه المحاولة إلى نمط مجتمعيّ مشوّه لا هو فرنسيّ و لا هو إسلاميّ أصيل.

كما كان التّعليم غائبا، و لا يزال، عن دوره الأساسيّ في المساهمة في التّربية. بل و نجد المحيط المدرسيّ في أحيان كثيرة في نشر الإفساد و قتل بذور الخير و التميّز. و كأن لفظ المؤسّسة التّربويّة لم يتجاوز يافطات المدارس و الشّعارات الحكوميّة. بل نجد الإطار التربويّ نفسه غير مؤهّل في حالات عديدة لتّعامل مع التلاميذ و تتوالى الفضائح و أقلّه غياب الإحترام و حوادث الإعتداء المتبادل بين الإطار التربويّ و التّلاميذ الذّي يصل في أحيان كثيرة إلى العنف.  

بالتّالي و ،بما أنّه لا يمكن لمسيرة التقدّم بتونس أن تنجح فاقدة للإطار الأخلاقيّ الحاضن، وجب علينا كمجتمع التفكّر بطرق لإعادة غرس و تعهّد البنيان القيميّ التونسيّ. و يبدو أن أهمّ ثلاث محور لهذا الإصلاح ستكون الإعلام و الدّين و التّعليم:

أمّا الإعلام فيجب ترشيد الوسائل الإعلاميّة العموميّة و إيجاد البديل الهادف و مخاطبة عقول التّونسيّين بدلا عن غرائزهم. و يجب إرجاع الهيبة و الدّور المحوريّ للإسلام كمشكّل رئيسيّ للأعراف و الضّوابط الإجتماعيّة من خلال دعوة المسلمين و تعريفهم أكثر حول مبدئ الحلال و الحرام و تفقيههم فيما يصلح شأن دنياهم قبل آخرتهم. هذان المجهودان يجب أن يترافقا مع إرساء تعليم مبدئيّ تكون للعلوم الإنسانيّة به مكانة و قيمة لتمكين النّشئ من الأدوات المنطقيّة اللّازمة لتحديد الخطئ من الصّواب.   

"إنّما الأمم الأخلاق".  
رابط المقال كما نشر على موقع نواة